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Gender studies is a Field of study of interdisciplinary study which analyzes the phenomenon of gender. It examines both cultural representations of gender and people's Experience. Gender Studies is sometimes related to studies of Social class, race, ethnicity and Location (geography).Healey, J. F. (2003). "Race, Ethnicity, Gender and Class : the Sociology of Group Conflict and Change".

The philosopher Simone de Beauvoir said: “One is not born a woman, one becomes one.”de Beauvoir, S. (1949, 1989). "The Second Sex".In Gender Studies the term "gender" is used to refer to the social construct of masculinities and femininities. It does not refer to biological difference, but rather cultural difference.Garrett, S. (1992). "Gender", p. vii. The field emerged from a number of different areas: the sociology of the 1950s and later (see Sociology of gender); the theories of the psychoanalyst Lacan#Lacan and his discontents; and the work of feminists such as Judith Butler. Each field came to regard "gender" as a practice, sometimes referred to as something that is performative.Butler, J. (1999). "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity", 9.

Studying gender Studies of gender have been undertaken in many academic areas, such as literary theory, drama studies, film theory, performance theory, anthropology, sociology and psychology. These disciplines sometimes differ in their approaches to how and why they study gender. For instance in anthropology, sociology and psychology, gender is often studied as a practice, whereas in cultural studies representations of gender are more often examined. Gender Studies is also a discipline in itself: an Interdisciplinarity area of study that incorporates methods and approaches from a wide range of disciplines.

Influences of gender studies Gender studies and psychoanalytic theory Sigmund Freud Some feminist critics have dismissed the work of Sigmund Freud as sexist, because of his view that women are 'mutilated and must learn to accept their lack of a penis' (in Freud's terms a "deformity").Karen Horney was one of the first to question the theory of penis envy. She argues that it is "the actual social subordination of women" that shapes their development: not the lack of the organ, but of the privilege that goes with it. Karen Horney (1922). "On the Genesis of the Castration Complex in Women." Psychoanalysis and Women. Ed. J.B. Miller. New York: Bruner/Mazel, 1973.On the other hand, feminist theorists such as Juliet Mitchell, Nancy Chodorow, Jessica Benjamin, Jane Gallop, Shoshana Felman and Jane Flax have argued that psychoanalytic theory is vital to the feminist project and must, like other theoretical traditions, be adapted by women to free it from vestiges of sexism. Shulamith Firestone, in "Freudianism: The Misguided Feminism", discusses how Freudianism is almost completely accurate, with the exception of one crucial detail: everywhere that Freud writes "penis", the word should be replaced with "power".

Jacques Lacan Critics like Elizabeth Grosz accuse Jacques Lacan of maintaining a sexist tradition in psychoanalysis. Grosz, E. (1990). "Jacques Lacan: A Feminist Introduction", London: Routledge Others, such as Judith Butler and Jane Gallop, have used Lacanian work to develop gender theory.Butler, J. (1999). "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity".Gallop, J. (1993). "The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysi", Cornell University PressHis theory of sexuation (sexual situation) — the development of gender-roles and role-play in childhood — breaks down concepts of gender identity as innate or biologically determined.Wright, E. (2003). "Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters)".

Julia Kristeva Julia Kristeva, in her work on abjection, argues that the way in which an individual excludes (or abjects) their mother as means of forming an identity is similar to the way in which societies are constructed. She contends that patriarchal cultures, like individuals, have had to exclude the maternal and the feminine so that they can come into being.Kristeva, J. (1982). "Powers of Horror."

Literary Theory Post-modern influence The emergence of post-feminism affected gender studies,Wright, E. (2003). "Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters)". causing a movement in Identity away from the concept of fixed or essentialist gender identity, to Postmodernity#Philosophy and critical theory fluid or multiple identities .Benhabib, S. (1995). "Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange." and Butler, J. (1995) "Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange.".

See Donna Haraway, The Cyborg Manifesto, as an example of post-identity feminism.

The development of gender theory History of gender studies Women's studies Women's studies is an interdisciplinary academic field concerning women, feminism, gender identity, and politics. It can include feminist theory, women's history, women's fiction and women's health.

Men's studies Men's Studies is an interdisciplinary academic field that includes discussions of men's rights, feminist theory, queer theory, patriarchy, as well, social, historical, and cultural representations of men and masculinity.

Judith Butler The concept of gender performativity is at the core of Butler's work, notably in Gender Trouble. In Butler’s terms the performance of gender, sex, and sexuality is about power in society. Butler, J. (1999). "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity", 9. She locates the construction of the "gendered, sexed, desiring subject" in "regulative discourses."A part of Butler's argument concerns the role of sex in the construction of "natural" or coherent gender and sexuality. In her account, gender and heterosexuality are constructed as natural because the opposition of the male and female sexes is constructed as natural.Butler, J. (1999). "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity", 163-71, 177-8.

Criticism Rosi Braidotti has criticized gender studies as: "the take-over of the feminist agenda by studies on masculinity, which results in transferring funding from feminist faculty positions to other kinds of positions. There have been cases...of positions advertised as 'gender studies' being given away to the 'bright boys'. Some of the competitive take-over has to do with gay studies. Of special significance in this discussion is the role of the mainstream publisher Routledge who, in our opinion, is responsible for promoting gender as a way of deradicalizing the feminist agenda, re-marketing masculinity and gay male identity instead."Calvin Thomas counters that, "as Joseph Allen Boone points out, 'many of the men in the academy who are feminism's most supportive 'allies' are gay,'" and that it is "disingenuous" to ignore the ways in which mainstream publishers such as Routledge have promoted feminist theorists.

Gender studies is criticized by Nathanson and Young for being a discipline that "philosophizes, theorizes and politicizes on the nature of the female gender" as a social construct, to the point of excluding the male gender from analysis. They also assert that the 'gender' in gender studies is "routinely used as a synomym for 'women', that men are studied as the sex that created the problem of 'gender' in the first place and that men are studied only as female victimizers.Nathanson, P. and K. K. Young (2006). "Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture." Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.

Theorists associated with gender studies

See also

References Bibliography

External links

Gender studies is a Field of study of interdisciplinary study which analyzes the phenomenon of gender. It examines both cultural representations of gender and people's Experience. Gender Studies is sometimes related to studies of Social class, race, ethnicity and Location (geography).Healey, J. F. (2003). "Race, Ethnicity, Gender and Class : the Sociology of Group Conflict and Change".

The philosopher Simone de Beauvoir said: “One is not born a woman, one becomes one.”de Beauvoir, S. (1949, 1989). "The Second Sex".In Gender Studies the term "gender" is used to refer to the social construct of masculinities and femininities. It does not refer to biological difference, but rather cultural difference.Garrett, S. (1992). "Gender", p. vii. The field emerged from a number of different areas: the sociology of the 1950s and later (see Sociology of gender); the theories of the psychoanalyst Lacan#Lacan and his discontents; and the work of feminists such as Judith Butler. Each field came to regard "gender" as a practice, sometimes referred to as something that is performative.Butler, J. (1999). "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity", 9.

Studying gender Studies of gender have been undertaken in many academic areas, such as literary theory, drama studies, film theory, performance theory, anthropology, sociology and psychology. These disciplines sometimes differ in their approaches to how and why they study gender. For instance in anthropology, sociology and psychology, gender is often studied as a practice, whereas in cultural studies representations of gender are more often examined. Gender Studies is also a discipline in itself: an Interdisciplinarity area of study that incorporates methods and approaches from a wide range of disciplines.

Influences of gender studies Gender studies and psychoanalytic theory Sigmund Freud Some feminist critics have dismissed the work of Sigmund Freud as sexist, because of his view that women are 'mutilated and must learn to accept their lack of a penis' (in Freud's terms a "deformity").Karen Horney was one of the first to question the theory of penis envy. She argues that it is "the actual social subordination of women" that shapes their development: not the lack of the organ, but of the privilege that goes with it. Karen Horney (1922). "On the Genesis of the Castration Complex in Women." Psychoanalysis and Women. Ed. J.B. Miller. New York: Bruner/Mazel, 1973.On the other hand, feminist theorists such as Juliet Mitchell, Nancy Chodorow, Jessica Benjamin, Jane Gallop, Shoshana Felman and Jane Flax have argued that psychoanalytic theory is vital to the feminist project and must, like other theoretical traditions, be adapted by women to free it from vestiges of sexism. Shulamith Firestone, in "Freudianism: The Misguided Feminism", discusses how Freudianism is almost completely accurate, with the exception of one crucial detail: everywhere that Freud writes "penis", the word should be replaced with "power".

Jacques Lacan Critics like Elizabeth Grosz accuse Jacques Lacan of maintaining a sexist tradition in psychoanalysis. Grosz, E. (1990). "Jacques Lacan: A Feminist Introduction", London: Routledge Others, such as Judith Butler and Jane Gallop, have used Lacanian work to develop gender theory.Butler, J. (1999). "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity".Gallop, J. (1993). "The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysi", Cornell University PressHis theory of sexuation (sexual situation) — the development of gender-roles and role-play in childhood — breaks down concepts of gender identity as innate or biologically determined.Wright, E. (2003). "Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters)".

Julia Kristeva Julia Kristeva, in her work on abjection, argues that the way in which an individual excludes (or abjects) their mother as means of forming an identity is similar to the way in which societies are constructed. She contends that patriarchal cultures, like individuals, have had to exclude the maternal and the feminine so that they can come into being.Kristeva, J. (1982). "Powers of Horror."

Literary Theory Post-modern influence The emergence of post-feminism affected gender studies,Wright, E. (2003). "Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters)". causing a movement in Identity away from the concept of fixed or essentialist gender identity, to Postmodernity#Philosophy and critical theory fluid or multiple identities .Benhabib, S. (1995). "Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange." and Butler, J. (1995) "Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange.".

See Donna Haraway, The Cyborg Manifesto, as an example of post-identity feminism.

The development of gender theory History of gender studies Women's studies Women's studies is an interdisciplinary academic field concerning women, feminism, gender identity, and politics. It can include feminist theory, women's history, women's fiction and women's health.

Men's studies Men's Studies is an interdisciplinary academic field that includes discussions of men's rights, feminist theory, queer theory, patriarchy, as well, social, historical, and cultural representations of men and masculinity.

Judith Butler The concept of gender performativity is at the core of Butler's work, notably in Gender Trouble. In Butler’s terms the performance of gender, sex, and sexuality is about power in society. Butler, J. (1999). "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity", 9. She locates the construction of the "gendered, sexed, desiring subject" in "regulative discourses."A part of Butler's argument concerns the role of sex in the construction of "natural" or coherent gender and sexuality. In her account, gender and heterosexuality are constructed as natural because the opposition of the male and female sexes is constructed as natural.Butler, J. (1999). "Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity", 163-71, 177-8.

Criticism Rosi Braidotti has criticized gender studies as: "the take-over of the feminist agenda by studies on masculinity, which results in transferring funding from feminist faculty positions to other kinds of positions. There have been cases...of positions advertised as 'gender studies' being given away to the 'bright boys'. Some of the competitive take-over has to do with gay studies. Of special significance in this discussion is the role of the mainstream publisher Routledge who, in our opinion, is responsible for promoting gender as a way of deradicalizing the feminist agenda, re-marketing masculinity and gay male identity instead."Calvin Thomas counters that, "as Joseph Allen Boone points out, 'many of the men in the academy who are feminism's most supportive 'allies' are gay,'" and that it is "disingenuous" to ignore the ways in which mainstream publishers such as Routledge have promoted feminist theorists.

Gender studies is criticized by Nathanson and Young for being a discipline that "philosophizes, theorizes and politicizes on the nature of the female gender" as a social construct, to the point of excluding the male gender from analysis. They also assert that the 'gender' in gender studies is "routinely used as a synomym for 'women', that men are studied as the sex that created the problem of 'gender' in the first place and that men are studied only as female victimizers.Nathanson, P. and K. K. Young (2006). "Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture." Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.

Theorists associated with gender studies

See also

References Bibliography

External links



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